Composers like Jean-Baptiste Lully and Jean-Philippe Rameau paid meticulous attention to setting their music in a way that highlighted the natural accents and inflections of the French language, ensuring that the words were always intelligible and meaningful.
And the same goes for the different indications that were used to convey not only the type of movement or the speed of a piece, but also the various moods and affects, precisely guiding performers in interpreting the emotional character of their music.
Understanding these terms is crucial for authentic performance practice in French Baroque music. Here are some examples of how this can happen on different levels:
- Articulation and Phrasing: terms like "gracieusement" guide performers to focus on smooth transitions between notes, while "vivement" encourages crisp articulation and rhythmic vitality.
- Dynamic Variation: performers must be sensitive to the emotional content indicated by these terms, adjusting dynamics accordingly to enhance expressiveness.
- Historical Context: recognizing that these terms reflect the cultural values of the French aristocracy during the Baroque period helps performers interpret the music within its intended context.
You can browse the page and click the words to see their definition or click the letters below to go to the respective section.
 
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À DEMI, DEMI-JEU, À DEMI VOIX
Mezza voce, normal loudness of sound.
AFFECTUEUSEMENT
Affettuoso.
AGRÉMENTS
(Or agrémens. Nouns in -ment often lose the final ‘t’ in plural form.) Graces, embellishments sometimes indicated by a sign. The agréments are integral parts of the musical grammar and cannot be omitted, even when they are not written in the score. ‘Those who unreasonably hold forth that the French ornaments only obscure the melody or harmony and are composed only of trills, have not properly considered the matter … There is a greater number and variety of ornaments than many believe … There are easily four thing which work against this most important part of the melody, which certain idle scoffers consider useless: namely omission, impropriety, excess, and incompetence.’ (Georg Muffat, Florilegium secundum, 1695.) The following are examples of a few types of principal agréments presented in their respective contexts – in the fourth line, balancement, also called flattement, means ‘(finger) vibrato’ (Alexandre de Villeneuve, Nouvelle méthode … pour apprendre la musique et les agréments du chant, 1733):
AIR
1. Tune, piece. — 2. In vocal music: aria, i.e. all measured chants that are not recitatives.
AMOUREUSEMENT
Lovingly.
ANIMÉ
Lively. More or less like Gai, Vif (see below).
ASSEZ
Quite, pretty. Assez lent, ‘pretty slow’.
AVEC
With.
BASSE CONTINUE
Basso continuo, thorough bass. ‘It will be absolutely necessary to use a Bass Viol, and a Theorbo, or a Harpsichord, or both together; but I believe that the Theorbo is to preferred to the Harpsichord: for it seems to me that the sound of the gut strings are better suited to the sound of the Transverse Flute than brass strings.’ (Michel de La Barre, Avertissement of Premier livre de pièces pour la flûte traversière, 1710, translated by Charles Whitfield.)
BLANCHE
Half note, minim.
BRUNETTE
A sort of tender, sentimental and very popular song. Its name, according to Christophe Ballard’s Avertissement (Brunettes…, 1703), comes from the refrain of Le beau berger Tircis: ‘Ah! little brunette, / Ah! you make me die’. Air de cour-style diminution is often added to the later verses (see DOUBLE).
CHAMPÊTRE
(Also spelled champestre.) Rustic, rural, e.g. rondeau champêtre, ‘country rondo’.
CHANT
1.Singing. — 2. Song, chant. — 3. Melody.
CROCHE
Eighth note, quaver.
CROCHES POINTÉES
See POINTÉ.
DE, D’
Of (from, for, by, to…). In some cases, this preposition indicates the manner in which a piece should be performed: ‘with’ – e.g. d’une légèreté gracieuse, ‘with a graceful lightness’ (Jacques-Martin Hotteterre’s indication in his opus 6 duo, 1717).
DE GOÛT
Literally ‘with taste’, i.e. with French ornaments. ‘Goût du chant [taste in melody], in music: this is what is called in France the art of singing the notes with the appropriate agréments [ornaments]’ (Denis Diderot, Encyclopédie, 1751–65). In his treatise (Traité général des élémens du chant, 1766), Mons. Martin de Lacassagne begins the chapter entitled Observations on taste with these words: ‘This is where we usually put the article on agréments’. Similarly, he points out in the section on agréments that ‘one should early on train the ear and the throat to certain vocal inflections that clarity [propreté] and taste in singing [goût du chant] often require’. See PROPREMENT (synonym) and AGRÉMENTS.
DEMI-JEU
See À DEMI.
DESSUS
Treble instrument (or soprano voice). Suite pour deux dessus, ‘suite for two treble instruments’.
DÉTACHÉ
Detached. A shortening of a sound, also called aspiration or son coupé. Often used before an ornament (as articulation silence), in fast movements (staccato), and in other places.
DIMINUÉ
Decrescendo.
DOUBLE
Ornamentation, diminution, division of a piece containing only the always obligatory ornaments, called agréments. It means either 1. an air de cour-style diminution of a piece in a slow or moderate tempo (e.g. sarabande, brunette), see Jean Millet (1666), La Belle Méthode ou l’Art de bien chanter; Bertrand de Bacilly (1668), Remarques curieuses sur l’Art de bien chanter; Father Marin Mersenne (1636), Harmonie universelle; or 2. a division of a fast movement (e.g. courante in 3/4, canarie).
DOUBLE-CROCHE
Sixteenth note, semiquaver.
DOUBLE COUP DE LANGUE
Double tongue (did’ll).
DOUCEMENT
Gently and slowly.
DOULOUREUSEMENT
Sorrowfully, doloroso.
DOUX
Piano, soft.
ENFLÉ, SON DEMI-FILÉ
Swelled note (crescendo).
FLÛTE À BEC
Also called flûte douce, fluste d’Angleterre… Recorder.
FLÛTE TRAVERSIÈRE
Also called flûte allemande, flûte d’Allemagne, fluste d’allemand… Transverse flute (German flute).
FIER, FIÈREMENT
Proud, proudly.
FORT
1. Forte, loud. — 2. Very (synonym of très), e.g. fort tendrement, ‘very tenderly’.
GAI (GAY, GUAY…), GAIEMENT
Allegro. From the 1730s, this word can also refer to the character of the music regardless of tempo.
GOÛT
(Also spelled goust.) Taste. See also DE GOÛT.
GRACIEUX, GRACIEUSEMENT
(Sometimes spelled gratieusement.) Gracefully, grazioso, and in a moderate tempo.
GRAVE
Gravely, solemnly, and slowly. Usually somewhat faster than lent.
GRAVEMENT
The same character as GRAVE (see above), but not necessarily slow.
H (FOR ‘HALEINE’)
Breath mark in Michel Blavet’s works.
HARDI, HARDIMENT
(Also spelled hardy.) Brave, valiant, courageously.
HAUTE-CONTRE
High tenor.
INÉGALITÉ, NOTES INÉGALES
(Or CROCHES, NOIRES… INÉGALES.) Inequality, unequal notes. Hierarchical order between the nature of essential and passing notes: one long and one short. The intensity of this difference is determined by the character and tempo of the musical context, the phrasing and articulation, ranging from near-equal to piqué (sharply dotted), and often varying within a measure, just as there are hardly two identical syllables in a declamation. Generally speaking, Father Marie-Dominique-Joseph Engramelle indicates that a 3:1 ratio is suitable for a number of marches, 2:1 for a moderate “trumpet menuet”, and a less marked 3:2, 7:5, etc. for many other menuets (Tonotechnie, 1775). Quarter notes are played unequally in 3/2 time. Eighth notes are unequal in 2, ¢, 3, 3/4, 6/4. Sixteenth notes are unequal in C, 2/4, 2/8, 3/8, 6/8, 9/8, 12/8 – and rarely in ¢ when beaten in four, with sixteenth notes. Several repeated notes and very disjunct motions are ordinarily equal (although there are always exceptions, like the first three repeated eighth notes in the anacrusis of La Marseillaise, written equal but sung piqué). These values also become equal when they are mixed with a shorter value (e.g. in chaconnes, when sixteenth notes are introduced among the eighth notes) – in which case, the shorter notes become unequal. Dots placed above or below the notes indicate that they are equal (not to be confused with staccato dots). Following an equal section, dotted notes may indicate the return of inequality. Contrary to modern custom, quick tempo has never been a reason to remove inégalité. See also NOTES ÉGALES.
JUSQU’AU MOT FIN
Al Fine, until the word ‘end’.
LÉGER, LÉGÈREMENT
Light, lightly, swift, allegro moderato.
LENT, LENTEMENT
Slow, slowly.
LIER, LIÉ
To slur, slurred. According to Michel de La Barre’s Avertissement (Pièces pour la flûte traversière, 1702), when two notes are slurred, a tremblement (also called cadence, trill) is made on the second note if the interval is descending, and a battement (also called pincé, mordent) when the interval is ascending. This rule applies to each pair of slurred notes (even in a fast gigue, and even in the continuo line) but not to unequal notes (like eighth notes slurred by two in a menuet).
LOURER, LOURÉ
To slur somewhat unequally and PESAMMENT (see below). (From loure, a sort of bagpipe from Normandy during the 16th and 17th centuries, on which the dance of the same name was played.) ‘Lourer is a way of singing that consists of giving a bit more time and strength to the first of two notes of like value, for example two quarter notes, two eighth notes, etc., than to the second, without however playing the note pointé [unequal] or piqué [sharply dotted]’ (Sébastien de Brossard, Dictionnaire de musique, 1703).
MAIS
But.
MAJESTUEUX, MAJESTUEUSEMENT
Majestic, majestically.
MARQUÉ
1. To express the beats of each measure clearly and regularly. — 2. When referred to articulation, it takes on the meaning of marcato, indicated by little pikes over or under the notes.
MÊME
(Also spelled mesme.) Same.
MESURÉ
Regularly, not freely, tempo giusto. In operas: a tempo, return to the correct tempo after a deviation (rubato) or an unmeasured (non mesuré) recitative.
MODÉRÉ, MODÉRÉMENT
Moderato, in a moderate tempo, between lent and gai.
MOINS
Less.
MOUVEMENT
Literally ‘movement’. 1. ‘A degree of quickness or slowness, which the character of the piece we execute gives to the measure. Every kind of measure has a movement peculiar to itself, and which is designed in Italian by these words, tempo giusto [correct tempo]. But besides this, there are five principal modification of movement, which, in the order from slow to quick, are expressed by the words largo, adagio, andante, allegro, presto; and these words in English are rendered, by slow, moderate, pleasing, gay, quick. We must, however, take notice, that, the movement always having much less precision in the French music, the words that express it have a sense much more vague than in the Italian. Each of these degrees is sub-divided and modified into others also, in which we must distinguish those which express the degree only of quickness or slowness, as larghetto, andantino, allegretto, prestissimo, and those, moreover, which mark the character and expression of the air, as agitato, vivace, gustoso, combrio [sic], &c. The first may be rendered by all the musicians, but there are only those whish have sentiment and taste, who feel and render the others. Tho’, in general, slow movements are suitable to sorrowful passions, and animated movements to the gay, there are, however, often modifications by which a passion speaks on the tone of another. It is true, that gayety cannot be expressed with slowness, but often the most lively griefs have the most unbounded language.’ (Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Dictionnaire de musique, 1768.) — 2. De mouvement: ‘Thus one says a mouvement gai, a mouvement lent, a mouvement vif, etc., and in this sense it also often means an equalness that is regular and clearly marked for all the beats of the measure. It is in this sense that recitatives are not sung de mouvement and that the menuet, the gavotte, the sarabande, etc., are airs de mouvement.’ (Sébastien de Brossard, Dictionnaire de musique, 1703.)
MUSETTE
(Also spelled muzette.) ‘A kind of air suitable to the instrument of this name, whose measure is two or three timed, the character sweet and original, the movement a little slow, bearing generally a bass in a the line or point of the organ, such as may make it a musette, and which is so called on account of this bass. On these airs we form the dances of a suitable character, and which also have the name of musettes.’ (Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Dictionnaire de musique, 1768.)
NOBLE, NOBLEMENT
Noble, nobly.
NOIRE
Quarter note, crotchet.
NOTES ÉGALES
(Or CROCHES, NOIRES… ÉGALES.) (Also spelled nottes egales.) Equal notes, without inégalité (equal eighth notes, quarter notes, etc.). Dots placed above or below the notes (that would normally be unequal) indicates that they should be played equally – not to be confused with the later staccato dot.
NOTES POINTÉES
See POINTÉ.
ON REPREND…
Repeat something. On reprend le 1er menuet, ‘repeat the first menuet’. L’on reprend le commencement (jusqu’au mot Fin), ‘da capo (al Fine)’.
PAS, POINT
Not.
PESAMMENT, PESANT
Lento, tardo, heavily. ‘Tempi, and consequently the notes, are slow and of long duration’ (Sébastien de Brossard, Dictionnaire de musique, 1703). ‘In a manner that is not vif and animé’ (Dictionnaire de Trévoux, 1738).
PETITE FLÛTE
Piccolo.
PETITE REPRISE
Little, partial repetition, i.d. a second repetition of the last phrase of a strain, sometimes written out as a DOUBLE (see above) of the original phrase.
PIQUÉ
1. Sharply dotted, more than pointé (unequal). See also INÉGALITÉ. — 2. From the late 18th century: staccato.
PLAINTIF
Plaintive, sounding sad and sorrowful.
PLUS
More.
PLUS DOUX
Softer.
PLUS FORT
Più forte, louder than the previous dynamic level. Not too loud if the previous marking was très doux (pianissimo).
POINT
1. See PAS. — 2. Dot.
POINTÉ, NOTES POINTÉES
(Or CROCHES, NOIRES… POINTÉES.) Unequal notes. See INÉGALITÉ.
PROPREMENT
Literally ‘properly’, i.e. with French ornaments. ‘To sing or play properly [proprement], is to execute the French melody with the ornaments suitable to it. This melody being nothing by the force only of the sounds, and having no character by itself, takes one only by the affected turnings given to it in its execution. These turnings, taught by the masters of the taste in singing [goût du chant], are what are called the graces of the French music [agréments du chant français].’ (Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Dictionnaire de musique, 1768.) ‘One should early on train the ear and the throat to certain vocal inflections that clarity [propreté] and taste in singing [goût du chant] often require’ (Mons. Martin de Lacassagne, Traité général des élémens du chant, 1766). See DE GOÛT (synonym) and AGRÉMENTS.
RECOMMENCEZ
Da capo.
REPRENDRE
See ON REPREND…
REPRISE
Repetition. See also PETITE REPRISE.
RONDE
Whole note, semibreve.
RONDEMENT
In the 18th century: andante. In a moderate tempo with some forward movement (slightly less slowly than gracieusement), with regularity, without abruptness.
SANS
Without.
SANS LENTEUR
Without slowness.
SEUL(S), SEULE(S)
Alone, solo. In orchestral music: flûtes seules, only flutes (without violins).
SON
Sound. SON DIMINUÉ: see DIMINUÉ. SON ENFLÉ: see ENFLÉ.
SON FILÉ
Messa di voce.
SUSPENSION
A slight delay of a note. Affective ornament (a sort of rubato).
SYNCOPE
‘Syncopation means the joining of two notes belonging to different beats of a bar … expressed as follows: t, hé’ (Charles de Lusse, L’Art de la flûte traversière, ca. 1760). Accent falls on the middle of the note, i.e. on the strong part of the beat (tu-HU), where generally there is also a dissonance.
TAILLE
Tenor.
TEMPS FORT, TEMPS FAIBLE
(Also spelled tems fort, tems foible.) Downbeat, upbeat.
TENDRE, TENDREMENT
Tender, tenderly, touching.
TOURNEZ (VITE)
Turn the page (quickly), volti (subito).
TOUS
Tutti.
TRÈS
Very.
TRÈS DOUX
Pianissimo, very soft.
TRÈS FORT
Fortissimo, very loud.
TRÈS LENT, TRÈS LENTEMENT
Very slowly.
TRÈS VITE
Prestissimo.
TRISTE, TRISTEMENT
Sad, sadly.
TROP
Too (much), troppo.
UN PEU
A bit, un poco. Un peu plus vite, a bit faster.
VIF, VIVEMENT
Vivace, with life and spirit, in a lively character, but not necessarily vite (fast).
VITE
(Also spelled viste, vîte.) Presto
VIVEMENT
See VIF.
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Clément Lefèvre is a French flautist. Primarily a baroque, renaissance, and classical flute player, he is also interested in medieval counterpoint. He regularly performs in concerts and modern world premieres resulting from the musicological researches of the Centre de musique baroque de Versailles. He has played in the ranks of various internationally renowned orchestras, and has contributed to over twenty recordings. He graduated from Conservatoire de Paris (CNSMDP) and Conservatoire de Versailles.
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